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Historically and in many parts of the world, women's participation in the ''profession of medicine'' (as physicians or surgeons for instance) has been significantly restricted. However, women's ''informal'' ''practice'' ''of medicine'' in roles such as caregivers or as allied health professionals has been widespread. Most countries of the world now provide women with equal access to medical education. However, not all countries ensure equal employment opportunities,〔See generally, "Women's Human Rights", 1998, Human Rights Watch (available (online )).〕 and gender equality has yet to be achieved within medical specialties and around the world. ==Modern medicine== In 1540, Henry VIII of England granted the charter for the Company of Barber Surgeons Company of Barber-Surgeons ; while this led to the specialization of healthcare professions (i.e. surgeons and barbers), women were barred from professional practice . Women did, however, continue to practise during this time. They continued to practise without formal training or recognition in England and eventually North America for the next several centuries.〔The History of Women in Surgery, by Debrah A. Wirtzfeld, MD〕 Women's participation in the medical professions was generally limited by legal and social practices during the decades while medicine was professionalizing.〔See generally Barbara Ehrenreich & Deirdre English, ''Witches, Midwives, and Nurses'' (1973).〕 However, women openly practised medicine in the allied health fields (nursing, midwifery, etc.), and throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, women made significant gains in access to medical education and medical work through much of the world. These gains were sometimes tempered by setbacks; for instance, Mary Roth Walsh documented a ''decline'' in women physicians in the US in the first half of the twentieth century, such that there were fewer women physicians in 1950 than there were in 1900.〔Walsh, 1977.〕 However, through the latter half of the twentieth century, women had gains generally across the board. In the United States, for instance, women were 9% of total US medical school enrollment in 1969; this had increased to 20% in 1976.〔 By 1985, women comprised 14% of practicing US physicians.〔Morantz-Sanchez, Preface.〕 At the beginning of the twenty-first century in industrialized nations, women have made significant gains, but have yet to achieve parity throughout the medical profession. Women have achieved parity in medical school in some industrialized countries, since 2003 forming the majority of the United States medical student body.〔("Applicants to U.S. Medical Schools Increase; Women the Majority for the First Time" ), Association of American Medical Colleges, Nov. 3, 2003, press release ("Women made up the majority of medical school applicants for the first time ever").〕 In 2007-2008, women accounted for 49% of medical school applicants and 48.3% of those accepted.〔〕 According to the American Association of Medical Colleges (AAMC) 48.3% (16,838) of medical degrees awarded in the US in 2009-10 were earned by women, an increase from 26.8% in 1982-3.〔 However, the practice of medicine remains disproportionately male overall. In industrialized nations, the recent parity in gender of medical students has not yet trickled into parity in practice. In many developing nations, neither medical school nor practice approach gender parity. Moreover, there are skews within the medical profession: some medical specialties, such as surgery, are significantly male-dominated,〔Dixie Mills, "Women in Surgery - Past, Present, and Future" (2003 presentation), Association of Women Surgeons; available at (AWS website ).〕 while other specialties are significantly female-dominated, or are becoming so. In the United States, female physicians outnumber male physicians in pediatrics and female residents outnumber male residents in family medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pathology, and psychiatry. Women continue to dominate in nursing. In 2000, 94.6% of registered nurses in the United States were women. In health care professions as a whole in the US, women numbered approximately 14.8 million, as of 2011. Biomedical research and academic medical professions—i.e., faculty at medical schools—are also disproportionately male. Research on this issue, called the "leaky pipeline" by the National Institutes of Health and other researchers, shows that while women have achieved parity with men in entering graduate school, a variety of discrimination causes them to drop out at each stage in the academic pipeline: graduate school, postdoc, faculty positions, achieving tenure; and, ultimately, in receiving recognition for groundbreaking work.〔The term was coined by S.E. Berryman in "Who Will Do Science?", 1983; see Louise Luckenbill-Edds, ("2000 WICB / Career Strategy Columns (Archive)" ), Nov. 1, 2000, WICB Newsletter, ''American Society for Cell Biology''.〕〔A. N. Pell, "Fixing the Leaky Pipeline: Women Scientists in Academia", ''Journal of Animal Science'', v.74, pp. 2843-2848 (1996), available online at ((PDF) ''Journal of Animal Science'' ), FASS.org.〕〔Jacob Clark Blickenstaff, "Women and Science Careers: Leaky Pipeline or Gender Filter?", ''Gender and Education'', v.17, n.4, pp. 369-386 (Oct. 2005).〕〔National Academy of Sciences, ''Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering''.〕 (See women in science for a broader discussion.) 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Women in medicine」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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